Macroeconomics and Microeconomics difference Essay

Macroeconomics and Microeconomics distinction - Essay Example Microeconomics manages singular interest and flexibly of individual merchandise and enterprises in the market. The law of interest expresses that as cost expands, the amount of products requested reductions different things held consistent thus amount requested and cost are contrarily related. The law of gracefully then again, states that as cost builds the amount of merchandise provided increments different things held consistent thus a positive connection between amounts provided and cost. The size of progress in amount requested relies upon value versatility of interest and gracefully (Mankiw and Taylor, 2006). In any case, there are numerous components other than value that influences the amount of merchandise requested and provided prompting an adjustment popular or change in gracefully. An adjustment in value causes developments along the interest and flexibly bend different elements held steady. Wessels (2006) contends that there will undoubtedly be changes which influence req uest or gracefully such us level of pay and climate changes. The interest for a decent or administration is influenced by the cost of the great, pay of family unit and the firm, riches, tastes and inclinations, cost of different items, number of families requesting a decent or administration (Anderton, 2000). On the off chance that the pay builds, family units have all the more buying power henceforth request more products and ventures along these lines moving the interest bend to one side and if pay diminishes, families lessen the interest for merchandise in this way moving the bend downwards. Same case applies to increment or abatement in the abundance of firms and family units. Be that as it may, it relies upon the kind of good or administration. For a second rate great, an expansion in salary or riches prompts decline in amount requested of the great however for typical products, an expansion in pay or riches prompts more interest for the great (Beggs, 2011). Mankiw (2011) takes note of that an adjustment popular because of progress in tas te and inclination or cost of related items relies upon the sort of products influenced. For instance, if a purchaser changes his/her inclination from Pepsi to coke which are substitute merchandise, the interest for coke increments while interest for Pepsi diminishes. For substitute products, an expansion in cost of one great prompts an expansion in amount requested of the other great. For instance, if cost of coke builds comparative with the cost of Pepsi, purchasers move request from coke to Pepsi which fills a similar need. For complimentary merchandise, an expansion in cost of one great prompts decline in amount requested of the other great. Macroeconomics manages total interest and total flexibly in the economy. Total interest contains; utilization, venture, government consumption, fares and imports or the genuine national yield (GDP). As Kyer and Maggs (1994) puts it, macroeconomics isn't worried about value versatility, minimal expenses and incomes just as individual decision s yet rather government approaches and the conduct of the economy all in all. The total interest in the economy isn't influenced by cost but instead different factors, for example, desires for family units, pay, riches, loan costs,

NURSING CAPSTONE PRACTICUM Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

NURSING CAPSTONE PRACTICUM - Research Paper Example In spite of the fact that it is felt that evaluating the material and figuring out how to address PC created questions are the ideal planning techniques for the NCLEX-RN assessment, systems that assemble self-assurance, information, and the demonstrable skill of the medical attendant are similarly significant (Hermann and Johnson, 2009). There are a few distinct sorts of testing styles, and every understudy will be OK with an alternate kind of assessment style, contingent upon which bit of the cerebrum they are most open to utilizing; the individuals who are generally alright with the left frontal projection incline toward oral introductions, conceptual inquiries, outline, exposition questions, insightful composition, and numerous decision questions. Understudies who are prevalent in their correct frontal flap lean toward automated article questions, venture entries, and arrangement questions. Those whose chief flap is the left back projection are best with coordinating inquiries, va lid or bogus inquiries, and exact retention, while those whose important projection is the correct back are awkward with any type of test, lean toward down to earth questions, and feel an impulse to take part in discussion around the assessments (Taylor, 2012); when the understudy knows about what class they fall into, they can work to adjust to that style, and defeat the challenges that might be introduced because of the sort of testing style utilized on the NCLEX-RN assessment. Most understudies will investigate various NCLEX readiness assets notwithstanding taking a broad NCLEX arrangement or audit course preceding taking the assessment; they will likewise no doubt get to a NCLEX Self-Assessment module (University of Washington, 2013) ,, for example, the one found at Test Prep Review (Test Prep Review, 2013). Key viewpoints in ensuring that the understudy finishes the NCLEX-RN assessment incorporate

Corporate and Business Law - 1925 Words

Corporate and Business Law (Essay Sample) Content: Name Professor Course/Unit Date Submitted Corporate and Business Law 1 Introduction Business executives consult the legal counsel to get legal advice and guidelines applicable to daily operations of the organization. There are business issues that require the legal services. Such matters include compensation, legal issues on the shareholders, taxation system, employment and agreement that pertains sale, purchase, and finance. Other activities that businesses engage in are commercial contracts, mergers, and acquisition as well as leases. There are also rules and regulations set by the government for the interest of the nation and the citizens, and the company is supposed to comply. The rule of law also applies in the relation between the client and the business. . The law is also in providing solutions on claims that can occur when the sale made does not satisfy the consumer and also to tackle matters regarding the breach of contract.[Riches, Sarah. Business Law. Pearson Education UK, 2005. Print.] 2 Understanding the Corporate and the Business Law The term business law is interchangeably used to refer to the commercial law. Business law is part of the civil laws and constitutes the private law and the public law. Essentially, the business law deals with relations, rights, and the conduct of the parties engaged in commerce. On the other hand, the corporate law deals with the relations and general interactions among the partners, shareholders, employees, and the consumers of the product and services of the given company. The corporate law is one of the prominent the law of business associations. Therefore, this law has provisions that ensure that the shareholders in the company have limited liability in case the make low profits.. Finally, both the business law and the corporate law have been developed from the English law which relies much on the legal precedents and the statutes. 3 Law Case Study An example is used of Harriet who owns a business that offers professional cleaning services. Harriet purchased a vacuum cleaner from a company called Super Sucker limited; she intended to use the tool to attend the cleaning services in a contract she obtained to clean Simon's house that is on sale. However, upon opening the box containing the cleaner, its power supply was not present. She also ran into another misfortune when her car hit the tree and she had to incur the cost of repair. Similarly, she did not clean the house as stipulated in the contract. Consequently, the owner of the house sold the house at a lower price than the expected value something that he attributed to the failure to clean so as to attract the price that was satisfactory. Simon who was the owner of the house decided to sue Harriet for the loss made by selling at a lower price. As such Harriet had to consider the possibilities of legal implications and the legal consequences on the Super Sucker Ltd due the i nconveniences that resulted from the lack of the power supply of the vacuum cleaner.According to the Byrne v Tienhoven (1880) case, a contract is non-binding if the decision to revoke it is communicated before the contract is accepted. Once the contract is accepted, it becomes valid. However, Harriet still has certain remedies to consider upon the Super Suckers Limited such as damages to the contract since one of the reason the house was not cleaned is due to lack of the particular machine. Remoteness and mitigation for the loss can be other remedies in case Harriet is found liable for the chance that Simon lost to make profit. The case is considered to be remote since the damage was not expected nor foreseen. The case that clearly illustrate the remoteness of the damage is that of Hadley v Baxendale [1854] .[The is case was ruled based on remote results] Application of Law The claims can be of wide range, for instance, for example, failure to honor the agreement and violation of the contract. The consequences, if found guilty as charged in the civil case can be compensation for the damage, loss or injury and it is determined during the trial. The reason for compensation is to make the situation even for both parties involved. The burden of proof, in this case, lies on both the house owner referred as Simon and Harriet. If Simons proofs that indeed Harriet's failure to execute contributed to the reduction in price, Harriet need to counter the proof by convincing the judge on the reasons why she failed to fulfill the promise. The judge must be convinced beyond doubt before passing the judgment. Therefore, the judge might have to rely on legal precedents or even the ratio decedendi to provide a fair verdict. A legal precedent allows the judge to consider certain previous cases to make the ruling as opposed to the ratio dicidendi where part of the judgment is reflected. The case entails unilateral contract between Harriet and Simon due to the presence of a single promise to clean the house. The second contract exists between the Super Sucker Limited and Harriet. According to Dahlia v Four Millbank Nominees [1978] case a contract whose implementation has been initiated cannot be terminated and thus Super Sucker Company has an obligation to ensure that the cleaning machine is working.["Dahlia V Four Millbank Nominees [1978] | Case Summary | Webstroke Law". Webstroke.co.uk. N.p., 2016. Web. 25 Aug. 2016.] There two kinds of losses encountered in the case study; that is, the lost chance to make profit. In this case Simon anticipated some profits by selling the house to Barry but instead, sold it to Rogers at a lower price. With regard to Chaplin v Hicks [1911] case law, the court argued that Chapline should be paid a certain amount for having missed the opportunity for a job interview as a result of the late invitation. Similarly, there is the probability that the court could rule out in favour of Simon and thus Harriet will have to pay him certain amount of money. A contract is valid if the promises therein have been fulfilled to the extent that the parties involved are contented. A contract is one of the civil laws that depend on the legal agreement between the parties. The parties involved are required to acknowledge the agreements, and they should be mature and of sound mind so that the contract can remain valid. Also, for the contract to be valid, several factors need to be con sidered. An offer is an expression that forms the subject the contract with certain terms and conditions. The person who makes an offer is an offeror while the one who accept the offer is the offeree. On the other hand, acceptance refers to an indication by the offeree that they are ready to respect the terms and conditions of the offer. The key players in the establishment of the contract are supposed to show concern or interest for the value of the offer and make the decision based on the intent.[Although the damages could not be assessed with certainity, this did not prevent the court from setting the amount to be paid. See Poole 389] The breach of contract happ...

Questions On Managerial Accounting Module 3 - 1629 Words

Managerial Accounting: Module 3 M. Peter Aspen University: BSU510 10-26-14 Exercise E3-28A, page 144: Recording journal entries 1. Journal entry for Dutch fabricators: As indicated on page 119,120,121 and 122 below are the journal entries. 1 .A. Accounts entry DEBIT CREDIT a Raw Materials Inventory $190000 Accounts Payable $190000 1.b b Work in Process Inventory $152000 Manufacturing Overhead $22000 Raw Materials Inventory $174000 1.c. c Work in Process Inventory $190000 Manufacturing Overhead $35000 Payable Wages $225000 1.d. d Manufacturing Overhead $30000 Depreciation pant/equipment $20000 Payable Utilities $10000 1.e. e Work in Process Inventory $81000 Manufacturing Overhead $81000 2. Actual manufacturing overhead $87000 Allocated manufacturing overhead $81000 By end of January manufacturing overhead cost has been under allocated by $6000 Exercise S4-19, page 209: Quality Initiative Decision 1. Based on the explanation on page 201 below are the details of each cost and respective category: a. Prevention costs: i. Negotiating with and training suppliers to obtain higher-quality material and on-time delivery. ii. Redesigning the speakers to make them easier to manufacture b. Appraisal costs: i. Additional 20 minutes of testing for each speaker. ii. Avoid inspection of raw material c. Internal failure costs: i. Rework avoided because of fewer defective units. ii. Lost productionShow MoreRelatedEND OF SEMESTER EXAMINATION MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING1680 Words   |  7 PagesProgramme : BBA Level of Study : 3 Time : 2.30 pm – 5.30 pm Date : 26/05/2013 Duration : 3 Hr(s) 0 Min(s) Course Code : ACC 3515 Section(s) : 1-4 Course Title : Management Accounting (This Question Paper Consists of 9 Printed Pages including the cover page) DO NOT OPEN UNTIL YOU ARE ASKED TO DO SO INSTRUCTION(S) TO CANDIDATES 1. ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS. 2. SHOW ALL WORKINGS. 3. 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To cite this article: Bob Gammie , Elizabeth Gammie Erica Cargill (2002): Personal skills development in the accounting curriculum, Accounting Education: An InternationalRead MoreA Project Report on Management Information System at Acc Ltd.4281 Words   |  18 Pages |3 | | |EXECUTIVE SUMMARY |4 | |1 |INTRODUCTION – DEFINITION OF MIS |5 | |2 |OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY |6 | |3 |SCOPERead Moretuurism3981 Words   |  16 Pages Module Study Guide Financial Management West London Business School Module Title Module Study Guide Module Code AC60003E Level 6 Credits 20 AY2012-2013 Version No 1  © UWL 2012 Module Title Module Study Guide Contents Page No. Module Leader and Teaching Team Details 3 Facts and figures Section A Overview and Content 1 Welcome and Introduction to the Module 5 2 AdministrativeRead MoreReflection on How to Make the Most of Working in Collaboration with Others972 Words   |  4 Pagesconcepts and help students take charge of their own educational experience (and, therefore, practice making meaning for them).† Therefore, through reflection, we can make connections and examine our learning processes. 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Manufacturing Engineering The Industrial Revolution

Manufacturing Engineering Matthew Cantrell Institution Course Date Abstract Manufacturing Engineering has been perceived as a separate engineering discipline in the present. Most of what manufacturing entails in the present stems from what was evident in the past. The industrial revolution is also responsible for fostering development of new engineering disciplines that are exclusively devoted to the engineering of manufacturing. The industrial rebellion realized the factory framework, steam engine invention, advanced metal cutting, and machine tools production. There are various recognized early pioneers of manufacturing engineering. Matthew Boulton, and James Watt are some of the engineers who assembled, and fabricated Watts Steam engine besides produced the engine commercially (walker Crowson, 2010). Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin that facilitated more production of cotton. In the 18th and 19th century, manufacturing engineering responsibilities and duties were controlled by the factory or shop supervisors. There was no particular specialist in pro duction control, manufacturing engineering, industrial engineering, and quality control. However, as the manufacturing company and factories got larger and more complex, the supervisors could not manage the process nor did they have sufficient knowledge to handle tooling, planning or material control. Consequently, there was an augmented effort for expertise in engineers, and technicalShow MoreRelatedMy Statement of Purpose: Transitioning from Production Engineering to Industrial Engineering827 Words   |  3 PagesTransitioning from Production Engineering to Industrial Engineering Introduction My greatest achievements, continual passion for learning, and drive to excel in educational pursuits are all predicated on a fascination with engineering. 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Engineers Code of Ethics

Question: Describe about the Term for Engineers Code of Ethics. Answer: Preliminary The 2010 Engineers Code of Ethics surely marks a watershed and is a compendium for skills and good practice that professionals should embrace. Accordingly, the code of ethics assigns a pivotal role, which cannot be snuffed as negligible, to individuals in the engineering firmament. At the outset, steadfast and impartial measures to ensure that the demands of the code are given life must be a priority. Demonstrate integrity It will be fatuous to downplay the essence of integrity as it is the natural and inherent impulse of life to seek to protect and respect the dignity of other individuals who may likely be affected by the consequences of ones actions. This assertion stems from the wisdom supplied by the neighbor principle enunciated in the famous dicta authored by Lord Atkin.(Stevenson,1932) In its concrete manifestation, integrity demands of managers and professionals to practice the principle of honesty and trustworthy. Needless to say, ignorance is on the face of the law no defense hence professionals should act on a well-informed conscience bearing in mind that the reward of ignorance is disasters such as the one in dispute now.( Stewart, Sprinthall, and Shafer, 2001) Practice Competently Lack of knowledge and skills typically defines incompetency. The challenging question embedded in this whole debate on the disaster that occurred is whether the team of professionals in BHP Billiton Ltd possessed enough skill and expertise to prevent the crisis. It would be strategically unreasonable to dissociate the calamity from the veracity that it indeed manifested an ineptitude and complicit team of professionals from BHP Billiton Ltd. It should thus be conceded that the capacity of the professional to display a coherent and principled approach in handling of affairs in the profession is absolutely essential in defending ones competence. (Australian Institute of Builders, 2001) Exercise Leadership The term leadership is nothing new but rather as old as human civilization. It is the conveyor belt towards a successful career in any profession. The entire BHP Billiton Ltd could easily sleep into a comma if the professionals fail to facilitate true leadership. It is inconceivable that with plausible leadership skills that are predicated on honesty and effective communication, the disaster would have transpired. In this sense, it is vital that such skills are cultivated in a manner that incorporates diversity and uphold the reputation of the profession. ( Davis, 2001) Impeccable leadership is manifested by proper vision, purpose and it influences judgement in practice. Promote Sustainability It is imperative to note that every action of an engineer should be one that furthers the advancement of better lives of the society and ensures the protection of the environment and natural resources. BHP Billiton Ltd offended the above principle as there was a massive environmental destruction including a devastating effect on the livelihoods of the settlers around that has since presented intractable problems for the locals. This should not be the aim of a professions undertakings. Resommendations Preliminary The tragedy that occurred in the samarco case mirrors a company that still has a long way to go to fully embrace the code of ethics and conduct. It is worth noting that the code of ethics is still a command only on paper in the company. It is the failure or the laxity of the management to ensure effective and efficient running of the company that bespeak of the companys lack of commitment to breathe life to the code of ethics. It is equally not enmesh in controversy that the reputation of the company has been watered down. It is however advisable that they apply the below recommendations. At the onset it is paramount that the company obeys the Golden Rule that states that do unto others what you expect them to do to you. ( Badger, and Gay 1996) Impact on society/Negligence The samarco case could be one of negligence. Negligence occurs where one person owes another a duty of care but breaches such a duty. The tort of negligence entails failing to do what a reasonable person ought to do that in end caused damage. It is submitted to the corporation that they ought to contemplate their neighbors and the consequences of their act or omissions which eventually have an impact on society. The duty of care gives rise to a legal obligation that they should not harm others and that they ought to reasonably foresee any such harm. The company should thus exercise reasonable standards of care and skill expected of the engineering profession. (Charles and Martin, 2002) Professional negligence attracts liability as was held in Turner v Garland and Christopher,1853 (Barrister,1914) where a roof collapsed because of negligence in architectural design. Disclosure The principle of full disclosure raises a legal obligation to act in utmost good faith and honesty. Members of BHP Billiton Ltd should cultivate cooperation among them that includes disclosing material information to the relevant authorities in the company. A breach of such a duty amounts to a professional misconduct. (Harris , Pritchard, Rabins, 1995) The duty of disclosure encourages a good working relationship among colleagues in the company. Integrity The company management may be involved in questionable atrocious conducts that may ruin the reputation of the company and eventually affect the financial standing. Such conducts include cases of massive corruption .The company should thus invest in mechanisms to ensure that that such practices are not bred in the company. Cases of embezzling funds lead to substandard projects being performed which may later cause an accident. The management should thus create an ecosystem that is a stalwart of integrity. Competence The company should have regulations formulated to ensure that highly qualified personnel are employed. Half-baked professional are disastrous to the company as there level competency put the company to a risk of failure to meet its objectives. (Mason, 1998) The personnel should possess a standard of skill and knowledge that is expected of their profession. If this is effected even cases acts omissions that lead to Negligence will no longer be in issue. 3. Preliminary It is a general principle in law that one has to read and appreciate the terms of a contract before signing any contract. (Paterson Robertson, 2015) It was held in Toll (FGCT) Pty Ltd v Alphapharm Pty Ltd, 2004 that parties to a contract are bound by the terms in the contract once they have signed regardless of whether they read or understood the terms. Such terms essentially covers liabilities and exclusion clauses that any buyer ought to be aware of before appending a signature. The discussion in this question falls within the rubric of Australian Consumer Law (ACL) and the common law of contract. Product Defects The ACL has long recognized that goods sold to a consumer must be of merchantable quality. (Gooley 2014) This implies that the goods must safe for use by the consumer at the time of buying the goods. (Australian Knitting Mills Ltd v. Grant ,1933) It can be argued that it was indeed honorable for Better Car Ltd to acknowledge that the self-drive mode utility was faulty and was due to the negligence of one of its engineers. The company was however not ignorant of the safety of the driver and its passengers when the car is on self-drive mode and to that effect they had a clause in the contract insisting on the driver to take safety measures. Breach of a Condition. It is an implied condition in the contract that the goods are of merchantable quality and it is submitted that Better Car Ltd is liable for the breach of this condition. It should however be borne in mind that there was a clause limiting the liability of the company in case of a breach of this condition. It should be noted that since the contract was signed by the buyer despite several attempts to explain to the buyer on the effects of the terms of the contract he is agreeing to, the extent of limitation entrenched by the contract is permissible. It was noted in Astley v Austrust Limited, 2000 that implied terms are applicable in contract law and the defendant is liable for a breach where they are breached Damages as a Result of Breach Better Car Ltd will only be liable for the breach to the extent of the negligence caused by the engineers. On the contrary, personal injuries resulting from the accident were also contributed by the negligence of the buyer in not reading the terms of the contract so as to be aware of any safety precautions that ought to be taken when driving under self-drive mode. Defenses Under the ACL ss142 a manufacturer or supplier could put up a defense that at the time that the transaction in the product was taking place the defect in the product could not be detected despite application of reasonable skill and expertise. The success of such a defense is determinate on a balance of probability though this would be the best possible argument that Better Car Ltd could apply. Remedies The buyer in the contract could only recover damages to the extent that the car self-drive mode was faulty. Since Better Car Ltd acknowledged there carelessness a case on a tort of negligence would be proper when claiming damages. The company could plead contributory negligence because the driver did not read the contract he signed and he went on to negligently sleep in a car despite the clause that stated that one should still be careful even when the car is on self-drive mode. If the buyer brings the case under contract law to put full liability on the company, the company could sue again under tort of negligence so that the liability is shared. In Astley v Austrust Ltd,2000 it was held that damages for a breach of contract could not be reduced by contributory negligence, however, the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Amendment Act 2000 (NSW) allows for a reduction of the damages for a contractual breach based on contributory negligence. References Astley v Austrust Ltd , HCA 197 CLR 1(2000). Australian Knitting Mills Ltd v. Grant, 50 CLR 387 (1933). Australian Institute of Builders, 2001 URL: https://www.aib.org.au/about.html Badger, W., and Gay, S.W., (1996) The top ten lessons learned in construction contracting, Cost Engineering, 38(5), May, 209. Barrister R., (1914). Hudson's Building Contracts Charles V. and Martin S. (2002). Professional Ethics the Construction Industry Davis, I., 2001, Health and safety: an economic and moral issue, Master Builder, The Magazine of the Federation of Master Builders, Mar, 17. Donoghue vs Stevenson, AC 562 [1932]. Harris Jr, C.E., Pritchard, M.S., Rabins, M.J., 1995, Engineering ethics: concepts and cases, Wadsworth Publishing Company, USA Gooley J., (2014).Principles of Australian contract law: cases and materials. Mason, R.R., 1998, Ethics: a professional concern, Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 68(12), Dec, 636. Paterson J., Robertson A., (2015) Principles of Contract Law. Stewart, D., Sprinthall, N., and Shafer, D. M. 2001. "Moral Development in Public Administration." Toll (FGCT) Pty Ltd v Alphapharm Pty Ltd, 79 ALJR 129 (2004).

Village life free essay sample

Culturally,  Pakistan’s rural folk enjoy a seemingly happy and contented life.  Not that they tend to be passive and lack initiative. On the other hand our rural folk are more energetic and struggle minded than their city dwelling counterparts.  ·A  Way of  Life†¦But  More Natural  · by Hira N. Hashmey  · Pakistan  is the cradle of Indus Valley Civilization,  civilisation that is spread over more than 4000 years of history.Archaeological excavations here have revealed evidence of the  meticulously planned  cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro that lived and died along the banks of the mighty Indus and its tributaries. The ancient Hindu epics narrate life between the 7th and 5th century BC which carry rich descriptions of the land and people of Indus at that time. These relics throw light on the culture and changing architectural styles of Punjab since the Harappan age. At Taxila near Islamabad, sites associated with great Gandhara Civilization  yielded remarkable relics that  showcase the  magnificient age  of Buddhism in the region. We will write a custom essay sample on Village life or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page But along  with its magnificent past, the rural life in present day Pakistan is as rich even today as it used to be before.  The lush green crops which ripen in summer to yield golden harvests, fruit laden orchards which bear delicious fruits similar to those of the paradise and above all a mouth watering food that makes many a chefs to envy. The luscious fruits are so dominant in Punjab’s rural culture that a special variety of mangoes is called Samr-e-Bahisht, literally meaning the fruit of the paradise. The Punjabi  folk in Pakistani rural scene are extrovert; sociable guys who like to eat well and dress well.  Even in a tight spot, a Punjabi youth would like to twirl his moustache and say â€Å"Khair ae† (am quite well†) to those who ask how he’s getting on. He learns quickly and assimilates new cultures without difficulty; family honour is sacrosanct to Punjabi’s, but in other matters they tend to be liberal. It is a matter of pride to be â€Å"up to date†. Their enterprise and capacity to work hard are legendary and it’s a deep ambition of Punjabi guys to â€Å"be one’s own boss†: many an à ©migrà © Punjabi have started life in a strange land driving a cab or working in a cafà © and gone on to buy out the owner within a couple of years.A few generations  ago, turban   was   the â€Å"crowning glory† of all   Punjabis, but   it has now   gradually disappeared from   the   scene. It was once a symbol of   Punjab’s honour and status. At   the same   time it offered a   protection against the   simmering   heat in the Punjab plains.   The   kurta, a long straight-cut, loose   shirt teamed with pyjamas, the   loose   baggy shalwar, or a kind of   sarong   called a dhoti or tehmad   makes up the   traditional dress   for men. Winter sees   the rustic   Punjabi in colorful sweaters   that wives and mothers are so skilled in making. A shawl in winter and a chador in summer finish this ensemble. When the urban, educated Punjabi steps out to work he will be in shirt and pant or a suit-sartorially indistinguishable from his counterparts in Tokyo or Toronto. Back home in the evening, he is likely to be found in more tradi tional dress. The traditional  Punjabi shoes,  called juttis or khussas retain their popularity with rural folk; they are both elegant and comfortable. Bahawalpur, Sargodha and Hazro in Attock district are famous for khussas.   The women in Punjabi villages dress in shalwar topped by a kameez (a garment that can be fitted like a dress loose like the kurta) and accented by a rectangular scarf about 2.5 metres long called the duppatta . She’s fond of her sweaters, but  passionately proud of her collection of woolen shawls. Gold is the weakness of Punjabi women – brides are loaded with it. The jewelers of Punjab, stock an enormous range of designs in bangles, necklaces, rings and earrings, nose-pins, ornaments to pin in the hair, anklets and toe-rings. Culturally,  Pakistan’s rural folk enjoy a seemingly happy and contented life.  Not that they tend to be passive and lack initiative. On the other hand our rural folk are more energetic and struggle minded than their city dwelling counterparts. Life  in a typical Punjabi village in Pakistan, starts early in the morning. The senior village dwellers along with not so insignificant number of village youth turn to the village mosque for offering their early morning Fajr prayers. After prayer, a delicious rich breakfast awaits the village men. The breakfast itself comprises of either fresh milk (cow or buffalo’s) or a hot brew of tea with a good amount of milk and sugar. After breakfast,  the men folk move to the fields where they start performing different chores of cultivation like plowing, sowing, and harvesting depending upon the season. Most  villages in Pakistan are situated away from the noise of the city life.  They are peaceful and silent places. A typical Pakistani village consists of unpaved paths and streets. Its houses are made of mud. However, with lot of young members from rural families which moved to the gulf as part of the â€Å"Dubai Chalo† syndrome, have benefitted from the petro dollars. So the villagers now build their houses from bricks and concrete though most of the village people have simple habits and limited needs.There are  green trees, vast meadows, and flowery bushes in every village. The blossoming flowers, fragrant air, the rising and setting sun all leave a healthy influence on the health of villagers. In the summer they rest under shady trees, and take bath in cool water. Women also help their men in their work along with their household. They also take care of their domestic animals such as cows, goats, hens etc. As many small villages are still void of the facilities like safe drinking water and electricity; even hospitals and schools are at long distances, life in the village requires more struggle than the relatively modern lifestyles in the cities. Village life in  Pakistan  depicts a true picture of our culture. Villagers are very traditional people who are hard workers. They wake up early in the morning with the Fajar prayers and start working in the fields. They work all day long in the field under the sun without caring about the harsh weather. This is the only way for them to earn their livelihood. They live  in a  serene and clean environment surrounded by green orchids and lush crop fields.  There are beautiful flowing streams and ponds. People live in a very well knit community; they help and solve each other’s problems. The elders have great respect and in the evening they gather together in village â€Å"chopal† (a community meeting held every day) and discuss their village problems, which mainly surround the water distribution from a mohga (water outlet from a main stream), good or bad crop during the season and some petty matters of biradris. The discussions in a chopal though full of opposite views and dissensions too, yet at the end there is a more amicable end as in every matter the izzat of the village is and should remain supreme in every village dweller’s eyes. Then there will be discussion about lack of basic amenities, they don’t have proper drinking water, no schools and co lleges and somewhere even no sewerage system at all. Some villages really need attention so that they can move on the road to progress.

Women and Revolution in China and Iran

Women and Revolution in China and Iran During the 20th century, both China and Iran underwent revolutions that significantly changed their social structures. In each case, the role of women in society also shifted enormously as a result of the revolutionary changes that took place - but the outcomes were quite different for Chinese and Iranian women. Women in Pre-Revolutionary China During the late Qing Dynasty era in China, women were viewed as the property first of their birth families, and then of their husbands families. They were not really family members - neither the birth family nor the marriage family recorded a womans given name on the genealogical record. Women had no separate property rights, nor did they have parental rights over their children if they chose to leave their husbands. Many suffered extreme abuse at the hands of their spouses and in-laws. Throughout their lives, women were expected to obey their fathers, husbands, and sons in turn. Female infanticide was common among families who felt that they already had enough daughters and wanted more sons. Ethnic Han Chinese women of the middle and upper classes had their feet bound, as well, limiting their mobility and keeping them close to home. If a poor family wanted their daughter to be able to marry well, they might bind her feet when she was a small child. Foot binding was excruciatingly painful; first, the girls arch bones were broken, then the foot was tied with a long strip of cloth into the lotus position. Eventually, the foot would heal that way. A woman with bound feet could not work in the fields; thus, foot-binding was a boast on the familys part that they did not need to send their daughters out to work as farmers. The Chinese Communist Revolution Although the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) and the Communist Revolution caused enormous suffering throughout the twentieth century, for women, the rise of communism resulted in a significant improvement in their social status. According to communist doctrine, all workers were supposed to be accorded equal worth, regardless of their gender. With the collectivization of property, women were no longer at a disadvantage compared with their husbands. One goal of revolutionary politics, according to the Communists, was womens liberation from the male-dominated system of private property. Of course, women from the property-owning class in China suffered humiliation and the loss of their status, just as their fathers and husbands did. However, the vast majority of Chinese women were peasants - and they gained social status, at least, if not material prosperity, in post-revolutionary Communist China. Women in Pre-Revolutionary Iran In Iran under the Pahlavi shahs, improved educational opportunities and social standing for women formed one of the pillars of the modernization drive. During the nineteenth century, Russia and Britain vied for influence in Iran, bullying the weak Qajar state. When the Pahlavi family took control, they sought to strengthen Iran by adopting certain western characteristics - including increased rights and opportunities for women. (Yeganeh 4) Women could study, work, and under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavis rule (1941 - 1979), even vote. Primarily, though, womens education was intended to produce wise, helpful mothers and wives, rather than career women. From the introduction of the new Constitution in 1925 until the Islamic Revolution of 1979, Iranian women received free universal education and increased career opportunities. The government forbade women from wearing the chador, a head-to-toe covering preferred by highly religious women, even removing the veils by force. (Mir-Hosseini 41) Under the shahs, women got jobs as government ministers, scientists, and judges. Women got the right to vote in 1963, and the Family Protection Laws of 1967 and 1973 protected womens right to divorce their husbands and to petition for custody of their children. The Islamic Revolution in Iran Although women played an important role in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, pouring out into the streets and helping to drive Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi out of power, they lost a considerable number of rights once the Ayatollah Khomeini took control of Iran. Just after the revolution, the government decreed that all women had to wear the chador in public, including news anchors on television. Women who refused could face public whipping and prison time. (Mir-Hosseini 42) Rather than having to go to court, men could once more simply declare I divorce you three times to dissolve their marriages; women, meanwhile, lost all right to sue for divorce. After Khomeinis death in 1989, some of the strictest interpretation of law were lifted. (Mir-Hosseini 38) Women, particularly those in Tehran and other large cities, began to go out not in chador, but with a wisp of scarf (barely) covering their hair and with full makeup. Nonetheless, women in Iran continue to face weaker rights today than they did in 1978. It takes the testimony of two women to equal the testimony of one man in court. Women accused of adultery have to prove their innocence, rather than the accuser proving their guilt, and if convicted they may be executed by stoning. Conclusion The twentieth-century revolutions in China and Iran had very different effects on womens rights in those countries. Women in China gained social status and value after the Communist Party took control; after the Islamic Revolution, women in Iran lost many of the rights they had gained under the Pahlavi shahs earlier in the century. Conditions for women in each country vary today, though, based on where they live, what family they are born into, and how much education they have attained. Sources Ip, Hung-Yok. Fashioning Appearances: Feminine Beauty in Chinese Communist Revolutionary Culture, Modern China, Vol. 29, No. 3 (July 2003), 329-361. Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. The Conservative-Reformist Conflict over Womens Rights in Iran, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Fall 2002), 37-53. Ng, Vivien. Sexual Abuse of Daughters-in-law in Qing China: Cases from the Xingan Huilan, Feminist Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2, 373-391. Watson, Keith. The Shahs White Revolution - Education and Reform in Iran, Comparative Education, Vol. 12, No. 1 (March 1976), 23-36. Yeganeh, Nahid. Women, Nationalism and Islam in Contemporary Political Discourse in Iran, Feminist Review, No. 44 (Summer 1993), 3-18.

A Format for Case Conceptualisation

Many professional and personal challenges confront practicum students as they work with clients. For example, students must establish a counseling relationship, listen attentively, express themselves clearly, probe for information, and implement technical skills in an ethical manner. Those counseling performance skills (Borders Leddick, 1987) center on what counselors do during sessions. At a cognitive level, students must master factual knowledge, think integratively, generate and test clinical hypotheses, plan and apply interventions, and evaluate the effectiveness of treatment. Those conceptualizing skills, within the cognitive operations used to construct models that represent experience (Mahoney Lyddon, 1988), show how counselors think about clients and how they choose interventions. It is highly desirable for instructors of practica to have pedagogical methods to promote the development both of counseling performance skills and conceptualizing skills. Such methods should be diverse and flexible to accommodate students at different levels of professional development and with distinct styles of learning (Biggs, 1988; Borders Leddick, 1987; Ellis, 1988; Fuqua, Johnson, Anderson, Newman, 1984; Holloway, 1988; Ronnestad Skovholt, 1993; Stoltenberg Delworth, 1987). RATIONALE FOR THE FORMAT In this article, we present a format for case conceptualization that we developed to fill gaps in the literature on the preparation of counselors (Borders Leddick, 1987; Hoshmand, 1991). Although many existing methods promote counseling performance skills, there are few established methods for teaching students the conceptualizing skills needed to understand and treat clients (Biggs, 1988; Hulse Jennings, 1984; Kanfer Schefft, 1988; Loganbill Stoltenberg, 1983; Turk Salovey, 1988). We do not discount the importance of counseling performance skills, but we believe that they can be applied effectively only within a meaningful conceptual framework. That is, what counselors do depends on their evolving conceptualization of clients; training in that conceptualization matters. Given the large quantity of information that clients disclose, students have the task of selecting and processing relevant clinical data to arrive at a working model of their clients. Graduate programs need to assist students in understanding how to collect, organize, and integrate information; how to form and test clinical inferences; and how to plan, implement, and evaluate interventions (Dumont, 1993; Dumont Lecomte, 1987; Fuqua et al. , 1984; Hoshmand, 1991; Kanfer Schefft, 1988; Turk Salovey, 1988). Although systematic approaches to collecting and processing clinical information are not new, the case conceptualization format presented here, as follows, has several distinguishing features: 1. The format is comprehensive, serving both to organize clinical data (see Hulse Jennings, 1984; Loganbill Stoltenberg, 1983) and to make conceptual tasks operational (see Biggs, 1988). The components of the format integrate and expand on two useful approaches to presenting cases that are cited often and that are linked to related literature on supervision: (a) Loganbill and Stoltenbergs (1983) six content areas of clients functioning (i. . , identifying data, presenting problem, relevant history, interpersonal style, environmental factors, and personality dynamics), and (b) Biggss (1988) three tasks of case conceptualization (i. e. , identifying observable and inferential clinical evidence; articulating dimensions of the counseling relationship; and describing assumptions about presenting c oncerns, personality, and treatment). In addition, the format makes explicit the crucial distinction between observation and inference, by separating facts from hypotheses. It advances the notion that observations provide the basis for constructing and testing inferences. Thus, the format fosters development of critical thinking that is more deliberate and less automatic than the ordinary formation of impressions. The approach is compatible with recommendations that counselors receive training in rational hypothesis testing to reduce inferential errors (Dumont 1993; Dumont Lecomte, 1987; Hoshmand, 1991; Kanfer Schefft, 1988; Turk Salovey, 1988). 2. The format can be adapted to the developmental stage of students by its focus on stage-appropriate components and implementing those components in stage-appropriate ways (Ellis, 1988; Glickauf-Hughes Campbell, 1991; Ronnestad Skovholt, 1993; Stoltenberg Delworth, 1987). As an example, beginning students use the format to organize information and to learn the distinction between observation and inference, whereas more experienced students focus on using the format to generate and test hypotheses. 3. The format is atheoretical, thereby permitting students to ncorporate constructs from any paradigm into their case conceptualizations. In this sense, the format resembles the cognitive scaffolding described in the constructivist perspective (Mahoney Lyddon, 1988). Rather than being an explicit template through which observations are filtered to conform to an imposed representational model, the format provides an abstract set of cognitive schemas. With the schemas, the student actively fashions a conceptual framework from which to order and assign meaning to observations. Simply put, the format is a generic structure that the student uses to construct his or her reality of the case. COMPONENTS OF THE FORMAT The format has 14 components, sequenced from observational to inferential as follows: background data, presenting concerns, verbal content, verbal style, nonverbal behavior, clients emotional experience, counselors experience of the client, client-counselor interaction, test data and supporting materials, diagnosis, inferences and assumptions, goals of treatment, interventions, and evaluation of outcomes. Background data includes sex, age, race, ethnicity, physical appearance (e. . , attractiveness, dress, grooming, height, and weight), socioeconomic status, marital status, family constellation and background, educational and occupational status, medical and mental health history, use of prescribed or illicit substances, prior treatment, legal status, living arrangements, religious affiliation, sexual preference, social network, current functioning , and self-perceptions. Initially, students are overwhelmed by the data that they assume need to be collected. Guidance must be provided on how students are to differentiate meaningful from inconsequential information. In our program, for example, we ask students to evaluate the relevance of background data, for understanding clients presenting concerns and for developing treatment plans. We advise students to strive for relevance rather than comprehensiveness. Presenting concerns consist of a thorough account of each of the clients problems as viewed by that client. This task might begin with information contained on an intake form. We assist students in developing concrete and detailed definitions of clients concerns by showing them how to help clients identify specific affective, behavioral, cognitive, and interpersonal features of their problems. For example, the poor academic performance of a client who is a college student might involve maladaptive behavior (e. g. , procrastination), cognitive deficits (e. g. , difficulty in concentrating), negative moods (e. g. , anxiety), and interpersonal problems (e. g. , conflict with instructors). Counseling students should also explore the parameters of presenting concerns, including prior occurrence, onset, duration, frequency, severity, and relative importance. We further suggest that students explore how clients have attempted to cope with their concerns and that they examine what clients expect from treatment, in terms of assistance as well as their commitment to change. In addition, students should assess immediate or impending dangers and crises that their clients may face. Finally, we instruct students in identifying environmental stressors and supports that are linked to presenting concerns. Verbal content can be organized in two ways. A concise summary of each session is appropriate for cases of limited duration. Alternatively, verbal content can include summaries of identified themes that have emerged across sessions. Occasionally, those themes are interdependent or hierarchically arranged. For example, a client may enter treatment to deal with anger toward a supervisor who is perceived as unfair and, in later sessions, disclose having been chronically demeaned by an older sibling. We teach students to discriminate central data from peripheral data through feedback, modeling, and probing questions. Students need to focus their sessions on areas that are keyed to treatment. For instance, we point out that clients focal concerns, along with the goals of treatment, can serve as anchors, preventing the content of sessions from drifting. Verbal style refers to qualitative elements of clients verbal presentation (i. e. , how something is said rather than what is said) that students deem significant because they reflect clients personality characteristics, emotional states, or both. Those elements can include tone of voice and volume, changes in modulation at critical junctures, fluency, quantity and rate of verbalization, vividness, syntactic complexity, and vocal characterizations (e. g. , sighing). Nonverbal behavior includes clients eye contact, facial expression, body movements, idiosyncratic mannerisms (e. g. , hand gestures), posture, seating arrangements, and change in any of these behaviors over time and circumstances. Instructors can assist students in distinguishing relevant from unimportant information by modeling and providing feedback on how these data bear on the case. As an example, neglected hygiene and a listless expression are important nonverbal behaviors when they coincide with other data, such as self-reports of despair and hopelessness. Clients emotional experience includes data that are more inferential. On the basis of their observations, students attempt to infer what their clients feel during sessions and to relate those feelings to verbal content (e. g. , sadness linked to memories of loss). The observations provide insights into clients emotional lives outside of treatment. We caution students that clients self-reports are an important but not entirely reliable source of information about their emotional experience. At times clients deny, ignore, mislabel, or misrepresent their emotional experience. Students should note the duration, intensity, and range of emotion expressed over the course of treatment. Blunted or excessive affect as well as affect that is discrepant with verbal content also merit attention. To illustrate, a client may report, without any apparent anger, a history of physical abuse. Initially, students can be assisted in labeling their clients affect by using a checklist of emotional states. We have found it helpful to suggest possible affect and support our perceptions with observation and logic. Empathic role taking can also help students to gain access to clients experience. Instructors may need to sensitize students to emotional states outside of their own experience or that they avoid. Counselors experience of the client involves his or her personal reactions to the client (e. g. , attraction, boredom, confusion, frustration, and sympathy). We strive to establish a supportive learning environment in which students can disclose their genuine experiences, negative as well as positive. Students often struggle to accept that they might not like every client. But students should be helped to recognize that their experience of clients is a rich source of hypotheses about feelings that those clients may engender in others and, thus, about the interpersonal world that the clients partially create for themselves. The feel of clients often provides valuable diagnostic clues (e. g. , wanting to take care of a client may suggest features of dependent personality disorder). Sometimes students need assistance in determining whether their reactions to clients reflect countertransferential issues or involve normative responses. We draw on parallel process and use-of-self as an instrument to help clarify students feelings and to form accurate attributions about the origins of those feelings (Glickauf-Hughes Campbell, 1991; Ronnestad Skovholt, 1993). Client-counselor interaction summarizes patterns in the exchanges between client and counselor as well as significant interpersonal events that occur within sessions. Such events are, for example, how trust is tested, how resistance is overcome, how sensitive matters are explored, how the counseling relationship is processed, and how termination is handled. Thus, this component of the format involves a characterization of the counseling process. Students should attempt to characterize the structure of the typical sessionspecifically, what counselors and clients do in relation to one another during the therapy hour. They may do any of the following: answer questions, ask questions; cathart, support; learn, teach; seek advice, give advice; tell stories, listen; collude to avoid sensitive topics. Taxonomies of counselor (Elliott et al. , 1987) and client (Hill, 1992) modes of response are resources with which to characterize the structure of sessions. At a more abstract level, students should try to describe the evolving roles they and their clients play vis-a-vis one another. It is essential to assess the quality of the counseling relationship and the contributions of the student and the client to the relationship. We ask students to speculate on what they mean to a given client and to generate a metaphor for their relationship with that client (e. g. , doctor, friend, mentor, or parent). Client-counselor interactions yield clues about clients interpersonal style, revealing both assets and liabilities. Furthermore, the counseling relationship provides revealing data about clients self-perceptions. We encourage students to present segments of audiotaped or videotaped interviews that illustrate patterns of client-counselor interaction. Test data and supporting materials include educational, legal, medical, and psychological records; mental status exam results; behavioral assessment data, including self-monitoring; questionnaire data, the results of psychological testing, artwork, excerpts from diaries or journals, personal correspondence, poetry, and recordings. When students assess clients, a rationale for testing is warranted that links the method of testing to the purpose of assessment. We assist students in identifying significant test data and supporting materials by examining how such information converges with or departs from other clinical data e. g. , reports of family turmoil and an elevated score on Scale 4, Psychopathic Deviate, of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 [MMPI-2; Hathaway McKinley, 1989]). Assessment, as well as diagnosis and treatment, must be conducted with sensitivity toward issues that affect women, minorities, disadvantaged clients, and disabled clients, because those pe rsons are not necessarily understood by students, perhaps due to limited experience of students or the homogenized focus of their professional preparation. Diagnosis includes students impression of clients diagnoses on all five axes of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994). We guide students efforts to support their diagnostic thinking with clinical evidence and to consider competing diagnoses. Students can apply taxonomies other than those in the DSM-IV when appropriate (e. g. , DeNelsky and Boats [1986] coping skills model). Instructors demonstrate the function of diagnosis in organizing scattered and diverse clinical data and in generating tentative hypotheses about clients functioning. Inferences and assumptions involve configuring clinical hypotheses, derived from observations, into meaningful and useful working models of clients (Mahoney Lyddon, 1988). A working model consists of a clear definition of the clients problems and formulations of how hypothesized psychological mechanisms produce those problems. For instance, a clients primary complaints might be frequent bouts of depression, pervasive feelings of isolation, and unfulfilled longing for intimacy. An account of those problems might establish the cause as an alienation schema, early childhood loss, interpersonal rejection, negative self-schemas, or social skills deficits. We help students to elaborate on and refine incompletely formed inferences by identifying related clinical data and relevant theoretical constructs (Dumont, 1993; Mahoney Lyddon, 1988). We also assist students in integrating inferences and assumptions with formal patterns of understanding drawn from theories of personality, psychopathology, and counseling (Hoshmand, 1991). As with their instructors, students are not immune from making faulty inferences that can be traced to logical errors, such as single-cause etiologies, the representative heuristic, the availability heuristic, confirmatory bias, the fundamental attribution error, and illusory correlations; (Dumont, 1993; Dumont Lecomte, 1987). As an example, counselors tend to seek data that support their preexisting notions about clients, thus restricting the development of a more complete understanding of their clients. We alert students to the likelihood of bias in data gathering, particularly when they seek to confirm existing hypotheses. Furthermore, we demonstrate how to generate and evaluate competing hypotheses to counteract biased information ]processing (Dumont Lecomte, 1987; Kanfer Schefft, 1988). Instructors, therefore, must teach students to think logically, sensitizing them to indicators of faulty inferences and providing them with strategies for validating clinical hypotheses as well as disconfirming them (Dumont Lecomte, 1987; Hoshmand, 1991). The proposed format can accomplish this task because it separates inferences from the clinical data used to test inferences and thus deautomatizes cognitive operations by which inferences are formed (Kanfer Schefft, 1988; Mahoney Lyddon, 1988). We have found it beneficial to have students compare their impressions of clients with impressions that are independently revealed by test data (e. g. , MMPI-2); this exercise permits the correction of perceptual distortions and logical errors that lead to faulty inferences. Although students intuition is an invaluable source of hypotheses, instructors need to caution them that intuition must be evaluated by empirical testing and against grounded patterns of understanding (Hoshmand, 1991). We also model caution and support for competing formulations and continued observation. This approach fosters appreciation of the inexactitude and richness of case conceptualization and helps students to manage such uncertainty without fear of negative evaluation. With the development of their conceptualizing skills, students can appreciate the viability of alternative and hybrid inferences. Moreover, they become more aware of the occasional coexistence and interdependence of clinical and inferential contradictions (e. g. , the simultaneous experience of sorrow and joy and holistic concepts such as life and death). The increasingly elaborate conceptual fabric created from the sustained application of conceptualizing skills also enables students to predict the effect of interventions more accurately. Goals of treatment must be linked to clients problems as they come to be understood after presenting concerns have been explored. Goals include short-term objectives along with long-term outcomes of treatment that have been negotiated by the client and trainee. Typically, goals involve changing how clients feel, think, and act. Putting goals in order is important because their priorities will influence treatment decisions. Goals need to be integrated with students inferences or established theories and techniques of counseling. In their zeal, students often overestimate the probable long-term aims of treatment. To help students avoid disappointment, we remind them that certain factors influence the formulation of goals, including constraints of time and resources, students own competencies, and clients capacity for motivation for change. Interventions comprise techniques that students implement to achieve agreed-on goals of treatment. Techniques are ideally compatible with inferences and assumptions derived earlier; targets of treatment consist of hypothesized psychological structures, processes, and conditions that produce clients problems (e. g. , self-esteem, information processing, family environment). Difficulties in technical implementation should be discussed candidly. We provide opportunities for students to observe and rehearse pragmatic applications of all strategies. Techniques derived from any theory of counseling can be reframed in concepts and processes that are more congruent with students cognitive style. To illustrate, some students are able to understand how a learned fear response can be counterconditioned by the counseling relationship when this phenomenon is defined as a consequence of providing unconditional positive regard. In addition, we teach students to apply techniques with sensitivity as well as to fashion a personal style of counseling. Finally, legal and ethical issues pertaining to the conduct of specific interventions must be made explicit. Evaluation of outcomes requires that students establish criteria and methods toward evaluating the outcomes of treatment. Methods can include objective criteria (e. g. , grades), reports of others, self-reports (e. g. , behavioral logs), test data, and students own judgments. Instructors must assist students in developing efficient ways to evaluate progress over the course of treatment given the presenting concerns, clients motivation, and available resources. USES OF THE FORMAT We developed the :format for use in a year-long practicum in a masters degree program in counseling psychology. Instructors describe the format early in the first semester and demonstrate its use by presenting a erminated case; a discussion of the format and conceptualization follows. The first half of the format is particularly helpful when students struggle to organize clinical data into meaningful categories and to distinguish their observations from their inferences. The focus at that point should be on components of the format that incorporate descriptive data about the client. Later in their development, when students are prepared to confront issues that influence the counseling relationship, components involving personal and interpersonal aspects of treatment can be explored. As students mature further, components that incorporate descriptive data are abbreviated so that students can concentrate on the conceptualizing skills of diagnosis, inferences and assumptions, treatment planning and intervention, and evaluation. When conceptualizing skills have been established, the format need not be applied comprehensively to each case. Rather, it can be condensed without losing its capacity to organize clinical data and to derive interventions. The format can be used to present cases in practicum seminar as well as in individual supervision sessions. It can also be used by students to manage their caseloads. Also, the format can be used in oral and written forms to organize and integrate clinical data and to suggest options for treatment (cf. Biggs, 1988; Hulse Jennings, 1984; Loganbill Stoltenberg, 1983). For example, practicum seminar can feature presentations of cases organized according to the format. As a student presents the data of the case, participants can construct alternative working models. Moreover, the format compels participants to test their models by referencing clinical data. Written details that accompany a presentation are also fashioned by a student presenter according to the format. The student presenter can distribute such material before the presentation so that members of the class have time to prepare. During the presentation, participants assume responsibility for sustaining the process of case conceptualization in a manner that suits the class (e. g. , discussion, interpersonal process recall, media aids, or role play). Supervision and case notes can also be structured more flexibly with the use of the case conceptualization format to give students opportunities to relate observation to inference, inference to treatment, and treatment to outcome (Presser Pfost, 1985). In fact, supervision is an ideal setting to tailor the format to the cognitive and personal attributes of the students. In supervision, there are also more opportunities to observe students sessions directly, which permits instruction of what clinical information to seek, how to seek it, how to extract inferences from it, and to evaluate the veracity of students inferences by direct observation (Holloway, 1988). FUTURE APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH The format is a potentially valuable resource for counselors to make the collection and integration of data systematic when they intervene with populations other than individual clients. Application of the format to counseling with couples and families might seem to make an already conceptually demanding task more complex. Yet counselors can shift the focus from individuals to a couple or a family unit, and apply components of the format to that entity. By targeting relationships and systems in this way, the format can also be used to enhance understanding of and improve interventions in supervision and with distressed units or organizations.

Emerging market Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Emerging market - Assignment Example There was a rising tendency in the consumption of strong alcoholic beverages until the end of 1980s; in mid 1990s this trend was reversed. Since then the demand for vodka has been decreasing, whereas the demand for beer and wine has been growing1 (Tabel 1). "Alcohol is often characterized as unconditionally negative in the context of poverty." ("Poverty and Alcohol" - an article by Yoon Hui Kim, 2004). Yet, the same author agrees that arguments have been made for both the benefits and disadvantages of alcohol production and consumption - as an industry, alcohol production has been argued to spur economic growth and alleviate poverty, while as a commodity it has been criticized for exacerbating the conditions of impoverishment. Consequently, for poor people alcohol can have both positive and negative repercussions on economic, political, social, and health factors. Alcohol consumption can act as a financial drain for indigent households by diverting limited funds from expenditures on food, healthcare, and education. White spirits and in particular, vodka, have been on the increase since 1999. Much of the growth has been inspired by younger adults, who are either supplementing or bypassing altogether, beer and wine, in preference3. The alcohol industry is an innovative industry able to use a wide variety of marketing tools to achieve success in the market-place. The various aspects of product marketing include advertising, labeling, consumer promotion, packaging and merchandising, being an integral part of promoting different brands of consumer goods. Alcohol consumption in Poland is comparable to that in other European countries4. Buying of alcohol (frequency & amount) depends on demographic, socio-economic and psychological factors. Statistical data reveal that alcohol consumption is wide spread in Poland. In the period of the last dozen years changes in the quantity and structure of consumption were observed. The most frequently consumed alcohol is currently beer, particularly among young people. In may 2003, a research investigating "The conditions of alcohol consumption among Polish adults" published in Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities shows that older people seem to prefer wine and v odka. Apart from age, sex also influences preferences: "women more frequently than men drink all kinds of wine and flavoured vodka, "whereas beer, pure vodka and mead are drunk more often by men" (the

Consultation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Consultation - Essay Example providing nursing services for a while and hence is qualified to provide advice and information about rehabilitation to organizations dealing with different forms of rehabilitation and their providers (Harmsen, 2008). Even before becoming a fully qualified CNS, the preceptor started her education and gathered much experience as a registered nurse where she worked in different settings including a hospital and even in different rehabilitation centers. Her passion to reform addicts led her to write her thesis based on rehabilitation centers and this required numerous research in that area including also dedicating time to work as a volunteer nurse in the centers where she was collecting data from (Fulton, Lyon and Goudreau, 2009). The years of experience combined with the educational expertise in rehabs has led her to become one of the top consultants and teacher in that field and that is why she is sought after by many rehabilitation organizations and the practitioners in the rehabilitation centers and even well-wishers wishing to invest in different forms of rehabilitation. Her caring nature contributed by her nursing career also has made her a consultant with a passion who follows up on her consultees to ensure that they understand issues and problems in rehabilitation (Hamric, Spross and Hanson,

Female Genital Mutilation Essay -- essays research papers fc

The practice of female genital mutilation, also known as female circumcision, occurs throughout the world, but it is most common in Africa. Female genital mutilation is a tradition and social custom to keep a young girl pure and a married woman faithful. In Africa it is practiced in the majority of the continent including Kenya, Nigeria, Mali, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Egypt, Mozambique and Sudan. It is a cross-cultural and cross-religious ritual, which is performed by Muslims, Coptic Christians, Protestants, Catholics and members of various indigenous groups.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Female genital mutilation is usually performed on girls before they reach puberty. It is a procedure where either part or the entire clitoris is surgically removed leaving a reduced or total lack of sexual feeling. This procedure is an attempt to reduce the sex drive of women, making them less likely to be sexually active before marriage or engage in extra-marital affairs. Although this procedure can be seen as a means to control a woman’s sexuality, the act of female circumcision determines the gender identity of women. A circumcised woman is a virgin, ready for marriage and to bear children for her husband, â€Å"Girls who are infibulated will probably not find husbands. In most cases they will become outcasts.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Female genital mutilation is not a new practice. In fact circumcised females have been discovered among the mummies of ancient Egyptians. A Greek papyrus dated 163 BC refers to operations performed on girls at the age they received their dowries. A Greek geographer reported the custom of circumcision of girls he found while visiting Egypt in 25 BC. In Africa female circumcision has been reported in at least twenty-six countries and can be viewed as a public health problem â€Å"because of its wide geographic distribution, the number of females involved and the serious complications caused by the operation.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Female genital mutilation is practiced in three major forms: â€Å"Sunna† circumcision, Clitoridectomy, and Infibulation. Sunna circumcision consists of the removal of the tip of the clitoris and/or the prepuce (covering). Clitoridectomy, also referred to as excision, consists of the removal of the entire clitoris (both prepuce and glans) and removal of the adjacent labia. Infibulation, also referred to as phara... ...s, and aunts footsteps, which would bring shame against herself and tarnish her family honor. Female genital mutilation is such a brutal and barbaric practice that it is amazing it is still occurs today. The health hazards associated with it should be enough to have it terminated. However, the reasons women have forgoing through with the operation is the custom of female genital mutilation is so engrained in their sociocultural system. The importance of family honor, virginity, chastity, purity, marriageability, and childbearing in these societies cannot be overstressed. Therefore in the minds of the people who adhere to this belief, the benefits gained from this operation for the girl and her family far outweigh any potential danger.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Female Genital Mutilation. See: http://www.religioustolerance.org/fem_cirm.htm Female Genital Mutilation Research Homepage. See: http://www.hollyfield.org/fgm/ Kouba, Leonard and Judith Muasher 1985 Female Circumcision in Africa: an Overview. African Studies Review 28:95-110. Van Der Kwaak, Anke 1992 Female Circumcision and Gender Identity: A Questionable Alliance? Social Science and Medicine 35(6):777-787.

Native Tribes

Cormac McCarthy’s â€Å"Blood Meridian† deals with racism in the form of The Judge’s attitude toward the orphans, the tangible efforts of the gang to be more savage, and even in the Kid’s role in the border skirmishes between the American settlers, the Native Americans and Mexicans living along the border. In a novel that some have called the greatest American novel since â€Å"Moby Dick†, McCarthy discusses racism on an inherent level, making people examine the historical context and the situation itself. Remarkably, the novel has a lasting appeal as a commentary on the way Americans address their southern neighbors even today.The first evidence of racism the book offers is in the Judge’s attitude towards the orphans. The Judge is a pedophile, raping the orphans and then killing them or having them killed to hide his indiscretion. In his mind, the Judge justifies his actions with the thought that many of the children in the orphanage are hal f-breeds and somehow therefore less important than people who are purely Caucasian. In his mind, the Judge and others who look after the orphans, even as wantonly as the Judge does, are doing their Christian duty and providing for children that are otherwise unwanted.In this way, the book takes a hard and accurate look at the racism that was prevalent in the West regarding children descended from Native Americans and Europeans. The children were dismissed by white society as half savage and by the Native populations because they often represented the humiliation of one of the women of the tribe—either voluntarily or involuntarily. To some extent, these children were more accepted in the Native populations when their parents were both accepted by the tribe, but even then they were mostly second class citizens.The next evidence of racism and its extreme application comes from the Gang. Though the gang is composed of outlaws of Caucasian and Native descent, as a means of instill ing terror in their victims, the gang resorts to scalping those they killed. As history demonstrates, only a very small number of Native Tribes took scalps as counting coup, but the stereotype of the novel and of the gang members was that Injun’s took scalps and that would make people more afraid of them. It is also interesting to note that primary targets of the gang were settlers coming up from Mexico or those of Hispanic descent.The stereotype that the Mexican were outlaws or lazy ot somehow second-class citizens is prevalent in the novel. Perhaps equally interesting in the long-term is the prejudice within the Hispanic/Mexican/Chicano community itself. Even now, those who are descendents of the Spanish Conquistadors are sometimes offended by being identified as Mexicans, whom they identify as those of mixed blood between the conquistadors and the Native American people of Central America. However, Chicanos in Southern California would be equally offended by being called a Hispanic as they take pride in their connection to Mexico.The fact that this racism persists to this day is both interesting and depressing at the same time. The simple reality of Cormac McCarthy’s novel is that it portrays an evil man attempting to justify his actions via racism and a gang of thugs using racism to make themselves seem bigger and badder than they are, when in truth murder should have been enough. McCarthy’s ability to capture the tenor and reality of the racism without pandering to it does make this a novel worth reading.

Visa H-2A trabajar en EU como temporero en agricultura

Con una visa H-2A se puede trabajar temporalmente en Estados Unidos en el sector agrà ­cola. Y es que es un hecho que la agricultura en USA està ¡ en manos de trabajadores extranjeros. Se estima que hasta el 50 por ciento de dichos trabajadores son indocumentados. El resto son residentes, ciudadanos y, un buen nà ºmero, personas con visas de trabajo temporal H-2A. El dato fundamental para que las embajadas y consulados emitan los visados es que es necesario cumplir una serie de requisitos que regulan quià ©n puede obtenerlos y en quà © condiciones. Y, por supuesto, contar con el patrocinio de una empresa americana. Ciudadanos de quà © paà ­ses pueden solicitar una visa H-2A Para poder beneficiarse de esta visa el primer requisito que hay que cumplir es ser nacional de un paà ­s designado anualmente en una lista especial por el gobierno de Estados Unidos. El 18 de enero de 2019 se publicà ³ en el Registro Federal un listado de 84 paà ­ses cuyos ciudadanos pueden tener esta visa. Tipo de trabajo Ha de estar relacionado con la agricultura, incluyendo los servicios agrà ­colas, y ha de ser de carà ¡cter temporal o de temporada. Cà ³mo se inicia el proceso para obtener estas visas El patrono agrà ­cola o las organizaciones de productores del campo son los que inician el proceso. Es decir, no se puede ir al consulado y decir: quiero aplicar para una visa H-2A. En primer lugar la empresa que contrata debe conseguir una certificacià ³n del Departamento del Trabajo, ya que para poder solicitar un trabajador extranjero deberà ¡ probarse que no hay en Estados Unidos personas con permiso de trabajo y con la calificacià ³n y el deseo necesarios para realizar ese tipo de trabajo. Con esta certificacià ³n en la mano, se solicita al Servicio de Inmigracià ³n y Ciudadanà ­a (USCIS, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) mediante el formulario I-129 la autorizacià ³n para solicitar a un trabajador extranjero con carà ¡cter de no inmigrante. Es decir, es un trabajador laboral y al acabar el trabajo o llegar la fecha de expiracià ³n de la visa debe salir de Estados Unidos. Si el USCIS da su aprobacià ³n, entonces la persona extranjera podrà ¡ solicitar ante la Embajada o consulado americano que le corresponda una H-2A. Tiene que  pagarse la cuota o arancel correspondiente por su tramitacià ³n y si no se cumplen todos los requisitos, la visa puede ser denegada. Cà ³mo tienen conocimiento de estos trabajos los extranjeros que se encuentran en sus paà ­ses Es comà ºn que este tipo de empleo se ofrezca a travà ©s de agentes, reclutadores o agencias de servicio de empleo. Estos agentes no pueden solicitar ningà ºn tipo de cuota, arancel o pago al trabajador extranjero a cambio de ofrecerles un puesto de trabajo. Se recomienda utilizar los servicios de una agencia o reclutador con excelente reputacià ³n. Este es un listado de mà ¡s de 60 reclutadores de visas H-2A y tambià ©n H-2B en Mà ©xico  con explicacià ³n de cà ³mo es el reclutamiento, problemas y cà ³mo verificar la reputacià ³n de los reclutadores y agencias. Validez de la visa H-2A En general este tipo de visa se concede por un periodo de 1 aà ±o. Puede extenderse hasta dos veces por un periodo de un aà ±o hasta un total de 3 aà ±os. Se deberà ¡ entonces abandonar Estados Unidos por tres meses antes de volver a aplicar por una nueva visa. Hay que tener en cuenta que la condicià ³n fundamental para que la visa sea và ¡lida es que el empleado està © realmente trabajando. Si el extranjero con una visa H-2A no se presenta a trabajar en los cinco dà ­as siguientes a la fecha de inicio de empleo o si es despedido, o si se ausenta del trabajo cinco dà ­as seguidos sin notificar al empleador la razà ³n de la ausencia entonces el patrono notificarà ¡ dichas faltas al USCIS y las autoridades migratorias entienden que se està ¡ violando las condiciones de la visa y, por lo tanto, ya no es và ¡lida. Lo mismo sucede si el trabajo se acaba al menos 30 dà ­as antes de la fecha programada. Si el trabajo que se ha venido a hacer se ha acabado, se debe abandonar Estados Unidos. En este artà ­culo se puede consultar informacià ³n mà ¡s en detalle sobre con cuà ¡ntos dà ­as de antelacià ³n al inicio del trabajo se puede ingresar a Estados Unidos. Y tambià ©n sobre el periodo de gracia para salir del paà ­s una vez que finaliza la labor. Familiares de trabajadores temporales en la agricultura Si la persona que recibe una visa H-2A està ¡ casada puede viajar a Estados Unidos con su esposo o mujer y sus hijos, siempre y cuando à ©stos està ©n solteros y sean menores de 21 aà ±os. Los familiares tendrà ¡n una visa  H-4 y no està ¡n autorizados a realizar ningà ºn tipo de trabajo durante su estancia en EUA. La H-2B Esa es otra visa que permite trabajar temporalmente en Estados Unidos, pero que està ¡ limitada a trabajos no agrà ­colas. Es comà ºn que se utilice para trabajar en un resort, en ferias, etc.  Es decir, las H-2A y las H-2B son parecidas, pero al mismo tiempo tienen objetivos completamente diferenciados. No deben confundirse. Puntos Clave: Visas H-2A  ¿Para quà © es la visa H-2A?: para trabajar en agricultura temporalmente en EE.UU.Paà ­ses cuyos ciudadanos pueden optar a estas visas: 84, de los que son hispanohablantes Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Espaà ±a, Guatemala, Honduras, Mà ©xico, Nicaragua, Panamà ¡,Paraguay, Perà º, Repà ºblica Dominicana y Uruguay.Tramitacià ³n de la visa H-2A: empresa estadounidense inicia el proceso solicitando certificacià ³n al Departamento de Trabajo, despuà ©s envà ­a papeles a USCIS y el tercer paso es la entrevista en la embajada o consulado.Tiempo de la visa: por 1 aà ±o, que puede extenderse a un mà ¡ximo de 3 aà ±os.Visas para los familiares: el cà ³nyuge y los hijos solteros menores de 21 aà ±os de una persona con visa H-2A pueden obtener una visa H-4. Con dicha visa, pueden estudiar en EE.UU. pero no pueden trabajar.